Life cycle assessment of emerging battery technologies- A comparative review of sodium-ion, zinc-air, and aluminum-ion systems

The accelerating global demand for sustainable energy storage solutions has heightened interest in alternative battery chemistries beyond lithium-ion. This review presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on three emerging battery technologies: sodium-ion, zinc-air, and aluminum-ion. By systematically examining peer-reviewed literature published between 2010 and 2025, we evaluate the environmental performance of these chemistries across key life-cycle stages, from raw material extraction to end-of-life treatment. The review employs bibliometric mapping to identify thematic trends and methodological patterns, including system boundaries, functional units, and impact assessment approaches. Sodium-ion batteries show promise due to material abundance and moderate environmental impacts, while zinc-air systems offer high energy density but face recyclability and air electrode challenges. Aluminum-ion batteries, though in early development, highlight potential for low-cost, high-sustainability storage, tempered by data scarcity and electrolyte concerns. A normalized cross-chemistry comparison reveals trade-offs between performance metrics and environmental burdens, emphasizing the importance of context-specific assumptions such as energy mix and recycling rates. The review identifies critical research gaps, including the need for standardized LCA datasets, improved end-of-life modeling, and integration with techno-economic and social dimensions. Ultimately, this work underscores the value of early-stage LCA in guiding the sustainable development of next-generation battery technologies.