Spatial differentiation and constraints of rural multifunctionality under urban and rural demands in the Hangzhou Metropolitan Area, China

Rural areas within metropolitan regions are increasingly shaped by expanding urban activity and internal rural transformation. This study develops a demand-oriented analytical framework that classifies rural functional indicators by whether they primarily reflect endogenous rural needs or exogenous urban demands, and applies it to assess rural multifunctionality. Drawing on township-level data from 2013 to 2023 in the Hangzhou Metropolitan Area, this study examines the spatial patterns, evolutionary dynamics, and constraints of rural multifunctionality. Rural multifunctionality generally increased over the period, and its spatial structure evolved from a scattered pattern in 2013 to a core–periphery gradient by 2023, with additional high-value areas around Jiaxing and Huzhou. Functional imbalances persist, with ecological dominance and relatively weak non-agricultural and cultural-recreational capacities characterising several peripheral areas. Based on the joint variation of the multifunctionality index and its coordination degree, four zones are delineated, namely priority promotion, potential promotion, collaborative optimisation, and moderate optimisation, and zone-specific constraints are diagnosed to inform differentiated planning. This study offers an analytical framework and township-scale evidence for advancing urban–rural integration.