Integrating rockfall and debris flow monitoring and early warning networks into risk mitigation and emergency planning in Brescia Province, Italy

Italy is highly exposed to rapid landslides such as rockfalls and debris flows, which strongly affect mountain communities, infrastructure, and land management. Mitigation strategies traditionally rely on structural measures, including active stabilization works and passive protection systems, but their effectiveness depends on site-specific geological and geomorphological conditions and event magnitude. In this context, monitoring and Early Warning Systems are increasingly recognized as essential tools to complement structural interventions and reduce loss of life. Recent advances in sensors, communication technologies, and data processing have made local and territorial landslide Early Warning Systems more feasible, although their implementation remains challenging due to false alarms, threshold definition, validation procedures, and the need for continuous maintenance. This paper presents three case studies from the Province of Brescia, Northern Italy, showing how monitoring and alarm systems can be integrated into risk mitigation and land management. The first concerns a rockfall-prone site where unusual trajectories and high bounce heights required a combined system of flexible barriers, a multipurpose interception net, impact sensors, and traffic-light-based warning devices. The second describes a debris-flow Early Warning Network based on continuous meteorological and hydrometric monitoring, event-triggered wire sensors, and rainfall thresholds. The third illustrates an integrated multi-hazard network that monitors rockfalls, debris flows, and floods at the municipal scale. Together, the case studies highlight the value of combining structural and non-structural measures to support emergency planning and improve territorial safety.