Classical communication with an exact photon budget: finite-block limits and optimal input ensembles

What can be transmitted with a fixed photon supply? An optical source that supplies exactly K photons across n modes poses a concrete communication problem: how many messages can it transmit at a chosen error probability, and which input states make the best use of those photons? This paper gives directly evaluable coding bounds for pure loss and identifies the exact optimal input ensembles for identical noisy Gaussian channels. The results allow researchers to assess finite optical blocks, quantify the information cost of fixing the photon supply, and determine when entanglement between separately constrained blocks can be dispensed with. Every message is supported on the same exact K-photon sector. Within that sector, encoding may use arbitrary mixed states and entanglement among modes, and the receiver may perform a joint measurement. Communication is unassisted. All logarithms below are natural; information is measured in nats. Finite-message bounds and the optimal third-order rate For n ≥ 2 identical pure-loss channels of transmissivity 0 < η < 1 and K ≥ 1, the number L of surviving photons has the same binomial distribution for every encoded state. Define \[p_= Kη^(1-η)K-, dn,={n+-1}{}.\] If ps*(M;n,K) is the best average success probability for M equiprobable messages, then \[∑₌₀Kp_[1-{M-1}{dn,}]_+≤ pₛ*(M;n,K)≤∑₌₀Kp_min\!\{1,{dn,}{M}\}.\] Here [x]+ = max{x,0}. The lower bound provides an achievable guarantee; the upper bound limits every admissible code. Evaluating both sums brackets the performance at a specified photon supply and block length. Their proof has a simple physical interpretation: surviving photons determine the available output dimension, while one collective-mode codebook works across all possible survivor counts. For fixed E > 0, fixed error tolerance 0 < ε < 1, Kn = ⌊nE⌋ and en = Kn/n, the bounds determine the largest message count through third order: \[log M^*(n,K_n,ε)=ng(η e_n)+√nη(1-η)e_n\,h(η e_n)ΦN⁻¹(ε)-12log n+O(1).\] Here g(x) = (x+1)log(x+1) − x log x, h(x) = log(1+1/x), and ΦN is the standard normal distribution function. This fixes both the fluctuation scale and the optimal −½ log n correction. The finite bounds also yield the exact decay exponent of success above capacity and a matching error exponent on a specified interval below capacity. Which inputs are optimal under Gaussian noise? For n identical nonidentity gauge-covariant Gaussian channels, with thermal photon means transformed as r ↦ ar+b, a > 0 and b ≥ max{0,a−1}, the paper determines the exact fixed-photon Holevo optimum and every ensemble attaining it. Each optimal letter places all K photons in one collective mode: \[|K,u={(∑ⱼ₌₁ⁿu_j a_j^)^K}{√K!}|0, ∑_j|u_j|^2=1.\] An ensemble is optimal precisely when almost all its letters have this form and its average is uniform on the K-photon sector. A finite weighted optimal ensemble exists. These collective modes may themselves extend across, and be entangled among, physical optical modes. Thus the characterization identifies the structure to optimize without imposing a Gaussian-input restriction. The central proof step combines different loss histories that end in the same output photon sector. A common ordering of the comparison eigenstates allows the separate majorization bounds to be combined. For pure loss, a quantitative rigidity estimate further converts a small Holevo deficit into closeness to collective-mode number states. Resource cost and communication across blocks At fixed positive photon density and fixed nonidentity Gaussian noise, requiring an exact photon supply incurs a Holevo penalty of ½ log n plus an explicitly determined constant, relative to the usual mean-energy value. The paper separates this cost into photon-count uncertainty and the mismatch from a thermal output distribution. For separately constrained blocks of quantum-limited loss, quantum-limited amplification or entanglement-breaking Gaussian noise, the one-block Holevo values add exactly. Every optimal letter is a product of blockwise collective-mode number states, and the repeated-block unassisted classical capacity equals the one-block Holevo value. The low-rate reliability interval outside the matching range and repeated-block additivity for intermediate Gaussian noise remain open.