Phenotypic characterization of a multi-country Moringa oleifera collection identifies market-specialized germplasm and quantifies multi-season trait stability

Moringa ( Moringa oleifera Lam.) is cultivated globally for leaf powder, fruit, seed oil and pharmaceuticals, yet germplasm characterization remains limited, constraining its use and improvement. We characterized 148 individuals from 32 families across seven countries/programmes in a two-season randomized complete block trial in Hawaii, USA, measuring 12 morphological, phenological and agronomic traits. Significant family-level variation (p < 0.05) was detected for nine traits. Genetic correlations between 1-year and 6-month post-coppice regrowth ranged from rg = 0.544 (leaf count) to rg = 0.776 (tree height), indicating trait-dependent rank stability; coppice shoot production was highly consistent between 1- and 6-month regrowth (rg = 0.896). Trait antagonisms between market classes were evident, with tree height positively correlated with leaf production ( r = 0.61) and flowering time negatively correlated with seed weight ( r = −0.41). Selection indices identified 80 individuals specialized for either leaf or fruit/seed markets, with none excelling in both, documenting complete market specialization not previously reported in moringa. These stable traits underpin principal markets, making this characterized, public-domain germplasm immediately valuable for market-targeted evaluation and breeding.