Trap or treasure? How perceived authenticity reframes tourist satisfaction and loyalty in Kyoto's overtouristed heritage sites

Overtourism is a major governance challenge for heritage destinations, yet little is known about how visitors evaluate places commonly perceived as overcrowded and commercialised. Drawing on Expectation-Disconfirmation Theory and Place Attachment Theory, this study examines the relationships among perceived authenticity, place identity, place dependence, perceived tourist traps, tourist satisfaction, behavioural intention, and destination loyalty. Survey data were collected from 213 domestic and international visitors at Kyoto's Gion and Kiyomizu-dera and analyzed using PLS-SEM. Results show that place identity and perceived authenticity are the strongest predictors of tourist satisfaction, while perceived tourist traps have only a negligible effect and place dependence is insignificant. Tourist satisfaction strongly influences both behavioural intention and destination loyalty. The findings reveal a ‘crowding paradox’: despite severe congestion and high prices, visitors remain highly satisfied and loyal because cultural authenticity buffers the negative impacts of overtourism. The study extends Expectation-Disconfirmation Theory to overtourism research and demonstrates how Place Attachment Theory explains the resilience of visitor satisfaction through place identity. These findings provide important theoretical and practical implications for balancing heritage conservation, visitor experience, and sustainable destination management in globally popular cultural tourism destinations.