Victimisation and willingness to intervene in football policing: a comparative study of stewards and police officers

Football-related violence remains a persistent problem, yet little is known about victimisation and willingness to intervene among frontline security actors. This study analyses responses from 352 stewards and police officers collected through the first Belgian Football Security Barometer (Hardyns, W. and Struyve, R., 2025. De Voetbalveiligheidsbarometer. Dienst Voetbalveiligheid, FOD Binnenlandse Zaken), a survey of security stakeholders in Belgian professional football. Stewards reported direct physical assaults more frequently and were less satisfied with the psychological aftercare they received than police officers. Police officers, by contrast, were more likely to report being consistently willing to intervene. Among respondents who considered not intervening, stewards were more likely to cite concerns about personal safety, insufficient resources, and fear of retaliation, whereas police officers were more likely to emphasise operational priorities. Greater cumulative exposure to high-risk matches was the only statistically significant predictor of victimisation, while operational role was the only significant predictor of willingness to intervene. Interpreted through the lens of plural policing, these differences point to an imbalance between frontline responsibilities and the distribution of formal authority, protective resources, and institutional support. The findings support stronger protection and post-incident support for stewards and more systematic match-risk assessment.