Access, not ability: gender disparities in access to smartphone-based AI advisory tools for banana disease management among smallholder farmers in Rwanda

Artificial intelligence (AI)-powered decision support tools can strengthen crop disease management, but their benefits reach farmers only when access is equitable. This study investigated how gender shapes access to smartphone-based AI advisory tools for banana disease management among smallholder farmers in Rwanda, using Tumaini, an AI-powered banana disease detection app, as a case. Using a mixed-method design, we combined a survey of 357 smallholder farmers across three districts, 12 focus groups, interviews with 61 farmers, and 12-month WhatsApp monitoring of 40 smartphone owners. Men had significantly greater smartphone ownership than women, and gender remained a significant predictor after controlling for education, income, and electricity access. However, among smartphone users, no significant gender differences were observed in digital literacy. Decision-making power was significantly lower among married women than married men. Despite high willingness to adopt, post-training use remained limited, with women significantly less likely to use the app than men. Men interacted with the app on significantly more days than women, though engagement per active day was comparable. Gender disparities in AI-tool use are associated with unequal access to devices and enabling conditions rather than with differences in technical capability. Addressing them requires gender-responsive interventions prioritizing equitable access, localized design (local-language and voice-guided interfaces), and structured group-based support. Such gender-responsive efforts are essential for women farmers to benefit equally from improved banana disease management and sustainable banana production, and for inclusive digital transformation in agriculture.