Systematic review of dilemma zone assessment methods, parameters, and countermeasures

Road-user indecision at interrupted traffic facilities, including intersections, crosswalks, and median openings, contributes significantly to rear-end and right-angle collisions. Accurate prediction and mitigation of dilemma zones are therefore essential for improving traffic safety. This study presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of cross-sectional and longitudinal research published up to April 2025, examining methodological variations, influencing parameters, and mitigation strategies for motorists and pedestrians. Of 202 eligible studies identified through Web of Science, Scopus, and TRID, 42 were included in a random-effects meta-analysis using standardized mean differences and log odds ratios. Subgroup analysis revealed substantial heterogeneity (Q = 174.69; p < 0.005; I2 = 76.53%) and identified critical factors influencing dilemma zones. Agent-based models achieved 97.3% prediction accuracy, while dynamic green and all-red extensions reduced type-II dilemma zones by 20–30%. Findings provide insights for safer infrastructure design, traffic operations, and intelligent transportation systems.