State-led debordering: driving mechanisms of the China–DPRK border tourism cooperation zones

This study examines the driving mechanisms of the China–DPRK (North Korea) border tourism cooperation zones through the conceptual lens of state-led debordering in highly securitized environments. Although comprehensive trans-border tourism cooperation remains limited by geopolitical tensions, border controls, and international sanctions, the fact that state-regulated organized tours from China to the DPRK operated at various times before being currently suspended suggests that localized progress such as cross-border tourism may still be possible when conditions permit. This research thus examines how state intervention functions as a primary driver to manage these strictly regulated contact zones. Grounded Theory analysis identified thirty-three driving factors for trans-border tourism cooperation, grouped into Demand, Supply, Intermediation, and Support systems. The Delphi and Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) subsequently evaluated the relative weights of the factors: Supply and Support systems received the highest weights, suggesting that experts placed greater importance on tourism resources, policies, and infrastructure than on Demand and Intermediary services. Six resource-based development scenarios and four strategic pathways for tourism cooperation zones are further outlined. This study contributes to border tourism discourse by highlighting the role of the state in developing trans-border tourism cooperation in highly securitized environments.