Beyond national diplomacy. How European cities engage with Chinese and U.S. Partners in a multi-level governance system

European municipalities maintain hundreds of partnerships with cities in China and the United States, yet their differences and place in European external governance remain underexplored. Drawing on two surveys of EU cities conducted in 2020–2021 and 2023, supported by document analysis and semi-structured interviews, this article compares their policy focus, organization and coordination. Partnerships with Chinese cities concentrate on economic cooperation and urban development and use more formal channels, reflecting China’s state-coordinated system. Partnerships with U.S. cities focus on cultural, educational, and people-to-people exchange and rely more on civic actors and decentralized networks. Local actors are central to sustaining these relationships. Coordination with regional, national, and EU institutions remains limited, but its significance varies across policy areas and geopolitical contexts. The article proposes targeted alignment as an approach that links municipal activities with higher levels of governance where their consequences extend beyond the local level.