Toxic and Essential Elements in Household Drinking Water from Kratie Province, Cambodia: Health Risk Assessment Using Survey-Derived Exposure Parameters

Drinking water contamination by toxic elements poses significant public health risks, particularly in rural communities. This study quantified Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, and K in 100 household drinking-water samples from Kratie Province, Cambodia, using atomic absorption spectrophotometry following acid digestion. Health risks for children and adults were assessed using exposure parameters obtained from a survey of 147 local participants. Zn and Cu concentrations remained within World Health Organization (WHO) guideline values, whereas Pb and Cd exceeded the applicable limits. Cd exceeded the WHO guideline value by up to 7.5-fold in 69% of samples. K showed the highest concentration among the investigated elements and was considered an indicator of dissolved-ion content. All hazard quotients were below 1 except for Cd. The cumulative hazard index exceeded 1 for children (2.46) and adults (2.07) under a conservative screening scenario, with exceedance persisting across all tested approaches for handling non-detects. The estimated lifetime cancer risk for Cd exceeded 1 × 10–4 across the published range of oral slope factors considered, although these factors were not validated for oral exposure to Cd. These preliminary risk estimates are based on a single sampling round and modelled intake assumptions. Further monitoring and investigation of potential contamination sources are recommended to better understand the extent of the problem.