Individual differences in the effects of background music on cognitive performance

Background music (BgM) is widely used during computer-based work, yet its effects on cognitive performance remain inconsistent. The present study examined BgM prevalence, individual differences in BgM effects across tasks, individuals' metacognitive awareness of these effects, and the factors predicting BgM use and performance. In a within-subjects design, 300 adults completed four cognitive tasks (verbal fluency, free recall, digit span, and Raven's matrices) both with and without music. The percentage of time participants listened to background music during everyday computer-based work ( BgM% ) was assessed and an overall music effect ( OME ) index reflecting the direction of BgM effects across tasks was calculated, alongside personality, mood, arousal, and other factors. BgM use was highly prevalent, with participants reporting listening to music during 47% of their work time on average. Although the average OME did not differ significantly from zero, its distribution showed substantial individual variability, with music improving performance for some individuals while impairing it for others. The correlation between BgM% and OM E was very weak, indicating little metacognitive awareness. Personality traits differentially predicted BgM use and effectiveness: Extraversion and Agreeableness were associated with higher BgM% , whereas Conscientiousness predicted more positive performance effects. BgM use was also associated with mood-related factors. These findings highlight the importance of individual differences in understanding BgM effects and challenge the focus on average effects. Better understanding these differences may eventually enable more personalized, evidence-based recommendations regarding BgM use.