Biomarkers for Screening and Diagnosis of Heart Failure in Cardiovascular–Kidney–Metabolic Syndrome: A Narrative Review

Cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic syndrome is a novel concept defined by the American Heart Association, highlighting the complex interactions between the cardiovascular system, kidney function and metabolic risk factors. Poor cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic health is increasingly prevalent worldwide, giving rise to a need to optimize early detection of cardiovascular dysfunction. Heart failure is one of the most prevalent forms of cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease and metabolic risk factors, but screening and diagnostic strategies remain challenging. Current guidelines endorse the use of prediction scores, as well as a biomarker-based strategy in patients at increased risk. Despite evidence supporting the use of biomarkers such as natriuretic peptides, there are considerable limitations to their use in the setting of cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic syndrome. Moreover, there is mounting evidence supporting the use of other biomarkers reflecting underlying mechanisms leading to heart failure. The aim of this review is to assess current approaches to screening for and diagnosing heart failure in cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic syndrome, highlighting the strengths and pitfalls of gold-standard and emerging biomarkers, while also addressing gaps in evidence and future research directions. Validation of screening biomarkers and development of multimarker prediction scores could impact clinical practice and reduce the growing morbidity and mortality in cardiovascular–kidney–metabolic syndrome.