Signaling pathways in vascular function and hypertension: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions

Figures

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  Fig. 1. Vascular structure

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  Fig. 2. Calcium signaling pathway. CPI-17 molecular mass 17 kDa, DAG diacylglycerol, GPCR G-protein-coupled receptors, IP3 inositol trisphosphate, IP3R inositol trisphosphate receptor, MLC myosin light-chain, MLCK myosin light-chain kinase, MLCP myosin light chain phosphatase, MLC-p phosphorylated myosin light-chain, PLC phospholipase C, PKC protein kinase C

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  Fig. 3. NO-(NOsGC)-cGMP pathway. cGMP cyclic guanosine monophosphate, cGK cGMP-dependent protein kinase, eNOS endothelial nitric oxide synthase, MLCP myosin light chain phosphatase, NO nitric oxide, NOsGC nitric oxide-sensitive guanylate cyclase

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  Fig. 4. Vascular remodeling pathways. AGEs glycation endproducts deposition, ALPL tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase, AMPK adenosine 5’-monophosphate-activated protein kinase, ANKH transmembrane protein ankylosis protein homolog, BAD bcl2-associated death promoter, BMP-2 bone morphogenetic protein-2, CBFA1 core-binding factor α-1, ECM extracellular matrix, ENPP1 ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase, ERK extracellular-signal-regulated kinase, MMPs matrix metalloproteinases. MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase, NADPH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NF-κB nuclear factor κB, HMGB-1 high mobility box group-1, JNK JUN N-terminal kinase, RAGE AGE receptor, ROS reactive oxygen species, ox-LDL oxidized low-density lipoprotein, PI3K phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, SOX9 chondrogenic transcription factors including SRY-Box 9

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  Fig. 5. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. ACE angiotensin-converting enzyme I, ACE2 angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, Ang I angiotensin I, AT1R Ang II type 1 receptor, Ang (1–7) angiotensin (1–7), MR mineralocorticoid receptor, (P)RR (pro)renin receptor, VEGF1R vascular endothelial growth factor type 1 receptor

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  Fig. 6. Redox signaling pathway. AP-1 activator protein 1, ECT electron transport chain, ER endoplasmic reticulum, NOXs NADPH oxidases, ROS/RNS reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, SOD superoxide dismutase, STATs signal transducers and activators of transcription, PDGF platelet-derived growth factor, PKG protein kinase G, VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor

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  Fig. 7. Immunity/Inflammation pathway. DAMPs Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns, FcγRs Fcγ receptors, NLRs NOD-like receptors, PAMPs Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns, TLRs Toll-like receptors

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  Fig. 8. Sympathetic pathway. ER endoplasmic reticulum, NE norepinephrine

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  Fig. 9. Molecular pathways and therapeutic strategies in vascular function and hypertension. a Molecular pathways that act on blood vessels. b Therapeutic strategies targeting blood vessels. (1), (2), and (3) in the signaling pathways section represent the specific intervention involving each pathway according to current evidence

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  Fig. 10. Application of biomarkers in clinical diagnosis and treatment of hypertension