From divergence to synergy: A multi-hazard framework for structural design under winds and earthquakes

Structural design for wind and earthquake resistance has historically evolved along separate tracks, reflecting differences in loading characteristics and performance objectives emphasized in practice. Wind demands are typically long-duration and dominated by mean and turbulent pressures, while the responses of wind-sensitive structures are often governed by low-frequency dynamic behavior and serviceability criteria such as drift and acceleration. Earthquake demands are transient base excitations that generate inertial forces throughout the structure, which have traditionally driven ductility-based strategies to achieve life safety under rare but severe events. This work examines how these contrasting traditions shaped prescriptive, hazard-by-hazard workflows and discusses why a “governing hazard” mindset can be risk-inconsistent in dual-hazard settings, particularly when sequential hazards and lifecycle consequences are considered. The paper then synthesizes recent progress toward a unified multi-hazard framework through Performance-Based Engineering, where common performance objectives and risk metrics (e.g., expected annual loss) enable consistent comparison and decision-making across hazards. In this context, emerging developments in performance-based wind engineering, including increased use of nonlinear analysis and controlled inelastic mechanisms under extreme winds, illustrate the growing methodological convergence between the two fields. The review concludes by identifying critical research gaps and future directions to support implementable, risk-consistent multi-hazard design.