Some learning processes

This chapter surveys cognitive perspectives on second-language learning and contrasts them with acquisitional views. It highlights the role of consciousness and noticing in language development, drawing on research showing that learners progress when they become aware of gaps between their current knowledge and the input they encounter. The chapter explains key cognitive constructs, including declarative and procedural knowledge, and shows how learners transform explicit knowledge into fluent performance through practice and automatization. It also discusses restructuring, the sudden reorganization of knowledge that can lead to rapid improvement. Two pathways to mastery are outlined: learning, which moves from declarative to procedural knowledge, and acquisition, which begins with procedural knowledge that later becomes explicit. The chapter concludes by arguing that effective instruction benefits from combining message-focused and form-focused work, integrating both declarative and procedural dimensions to support continued development and prevent fossilization.