Unlocking cyanidin-3-glucoside potentials with green technologies: advances in extraction, bioavailability, and stability for therapeutic and non-therapeutic applications

Research exploring and coupling green technologies and the multi-functional cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G) molecule is increasing due to many reasons. Beyond its role in plant defense, emitting several plants’ hues, and pollination, the unique C3G’s structure supports diverse health benefits (therapeutic) and even photochromic (non-therapeutic) properties. A naturally abundant anthocyanin, carbon-rich C3G molecule is found in pigmented plant parts and is now producible via an engineered E. coli strain; however, its numerous applications suffer from its sensitivity to light, oxygen, enzymes, pH, and heat, and the environmental toll of its conventional extraction has limited real-world use. Green techniques are selected due to their low environmental impact, efficiency, and ability to yield by-products that are capable of withstanding harsh environmental conditions. Recent green innovations such as deep-eutectic solvents (DES) are recovering up to 91% of phenolics with 1.5–3 times higher antioxidant activity, while cyclodextrin encapsulation enables the molecule to boost gut microbiome benefits—promoting good bacterial ( Bifidobacterium spp.) growth and suppressing the growth of harmful bacteria (e.g., Clostridium histolyticum ) in in vitro , animal, and human trial studies. Coupling sustainable green extraction and delivery methods can boost the therapeutic functions of the C3G molecule through the gut-microbiome-liver-brain-immune system axis and enhance its (non-therapeutic) photochromic and additive benefits through improved molecular stabilization.