Conceptual foundations of drug development in ancient India: A historical–analytical review of empirical practices

The history of drug discovery in ancient India in the Ayush sector reflects a structured and empirically grounded tradition that predates modern biomedical research methodologies. Classical Ayurveda texts demonstrate systematic approaches to drug identification, validation, formulation, and therapeutic application based on observation, inference, and long-term clinical experience. This study presents a historical–analytical review of drug-related practices described in classical Ayurvedic texts, including the Charaka Samhita , Sushruta Samhita , and Ashtanga Hridaya . The objective is to examine how therapeutic substances were identified, evaluated, and applied within Ayurveda’s epistemological framework. The analysis focuses on key concepts such as Pratyaksha (direct observation), Anumana (inference), and Yukti (rational planning), interpreted within their original theoretical context. Rather than equating these constructs with modern biomedical paradigms, the study adopts a cautious comparative approach to identify limited conceptual parallels while acknowledging fundamental differences in methodology, standardization, and validation. The review is based on purposive textual selection supported by secondary literature and does not follow a systematic review protocol. The findings suggest that classical Ayurveda reflects a practice-based and experience-oriented approach to therapeutics, with strengths in individualized care and longitudinal observation, but limitations in controlled experimentation and reproducibility. The study highlights the relevance of historically grounded interpretations while emphasizing the need for methodological rigor in contemporary research integration.