Concurrent exercise training induces additional benefits to hydrochlorothiazide: Evidence for an improvement of autonomic control and oxidative stress in a model of hypertension and postmenopause

Fig 1. Exercise performance tests in the studied groups. (A) maximal running test (treadmill) and (B) maximal load test (ladder) in hypertensive control (C) and hypertensive ovariectomized rats: sedentary (O), treated with HCTZ (OH), trained (OT) and trained and treated with HCTZ (OTH). Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 8/group) and were analyzed using ANOVA for repeated measures with Bonferroni’s correction, followed by Tukey as a post hoc test. * p < 0.05 vs. C; † p < 0.05 vs. O; ‡ p < 0.05 vs. OH, § p < 0.05 vs. OT.

Fig 2. Hemodynamic and cardiac function assessments. (A) Systolic, (B) diastolic and (C) mean arterial pressure, (D) resting heart rate and (E) rate-pressure product in hypertensive control (C) and hypertensive ovariectomized rats: sedentary (O), treated with HCTZ (OH), trained (OT) and trained and treated with HCTZ (OTH). Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 7-8/group) and were analyzed using 1-way ANOVA followed by Tukey as a post hoc test. * p < 0.05 vs. C; † p < 0.05 vs. O; ‡ p < 0.05 vs. OH. SAP, systolic arterial pressure; DAP, diastolic arterial pressure, MAP, mean arterial pressure; HR, heart rate; RPP, rate-pressure product.

Fig 3. Baroreflex sensitivity assessed by administration of increasing doses of phenylephrine and sodium nitroprusside. (A) Bradycardic and (B) tachycardic response of the baroreflex sensitivity in hypertensive control (C) and hypertensive ovariectomized rats: sedentary (O), treated with HCTZ (OH), trained (OT) and trained and treated with HCTZ (OTH). Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 7-8/group) and were analyzed using 1-way ANOVA followed by Tukey as a post hoc test. * p < 0.05 vs. C; † p < 0.05 vs. O. BRS, baroreflex sensitivity.

Fig 4. Oxidative stress assessed in cardiac tissue. Oxidative stress damage (A), pro-oxidant (B and C) and antioxidant enzymes (D–F) assessed in hypertensive control (C) and hypertensive ovariectomized rats: sedentary (O), treated with HCTZ (OH), trained (OT) and trained and treated with HCTZ (OTH). Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 7-8/group) and were analyzed using 1-way ANOVA followed by Tukey as a post hoc test. * p < 0.05 vs. C; † p < 0.05 vs. O; ‡ p < 0.05 vs. OH; § p < 0.05 vs. OT. NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CAT, catalase; GPx, glutathione peroxidase.