Understanding mathematical learning difficulties in early primary grades in Vietnam: A contextualized contribution to global insights

Mathematics learning difficulties (MLD) in primary school can have long-term consequences for academic achievement and life outcomes. While international literature has established the multidimensional nature of MLD, large-scale, context-sensitive data from non-Western education systems remain limited. This study examined the prevalence and characteristics of MLD among 8,805 students in Grades 1 to 3 in Vietnam, using teacher-reported checklist data from seven representative provinces. Approximately 12% of students showed persistent difficulties in core math skills, with 3.57% identified as high risk. Problem-solving skills, procedural fluency involving working memory-dependent multistep computation, working memory, and mathematical reasoning were the most frequently observed difficulties. Gender disparities were evident, with boys more frequently identified than girls, reflecting patterns observed in prior research. Contrary to expectations, there was no consistent decline in MLD prevalence across grade levels, suggesting a need for vertically aligned, data-driven support systems that extend across grade levels rather than one-off assessments or grade-specific interventions. More notably, students from rural areas were identified at significantly higher rates than their urban counterparts, and the variation in MLD prevalence across socioeconomic regions suggests that structural disparities in educational access, teacher quality, and resource allocation may contribute to the exacerbation of learning challenges. These findings highlight how geographic and socioeconomic context can shape the visibility and persistence of MLD in early stage of primary education. Grounded in the Vietnamese primary education context, this study contributes situated insights to global discussions on mathematical learning difficulties across diverse curricular and cultural frameworks. The findings underscore the importance of aligning curriculum implementation and teacher training with local realities. Policy implications include integrating formative screening tools, differentiated and early intervention models such as Response to Intervention (RTI). Continued longitudinal and interdisciplinary research—especially into upper grades—is essential to inform an inclusive and equitable mathematics education for Vietnam and comparable contexts.