A Two-Stage MILP-GRU-Based Energy Management Framework for Cost-Optimized Solar-Powered EV Charging in Smart Parking Lots

A transition towards sustainable transportation requires efficient integration of electric vehicles (EVs) with renewable energy sources. This work proposes a two-stage Parking Lot Energy Management Scheme (PLEMS) to minimize charging costs while maximizing solar photovoltaic utilization in commercial parking facilities. In the first stage, the optimization phase is formulated using a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) that minimizes the overall cost of EV charging while ensuring maximum utilization of locally available PV energy. In the second stage, a gated recurrent unit (GRU)-based deep learning model performs state of charge (SOC) forecasting for EVs parked in the parking lot. Using the predicted SOC for the next time step, the system decides whether each EV will be charged or discharged, ensuring consistency with the cost-optimal MILP strategy from the first stage. The proposed PLEMS achieves up to 62% daily cost savings in charging compared to uncoordinated direct grid charging. However, this cost saving is the outcome of proposed optimization as well as the integration of PV panels in power grid. When compared with nine similar vehicles to grid (V2G)-enabled approaches from the literature, which report cost savings ranging from 9.73% to 52%, the proposed framework shows an improvement of 10% to 52% over these methods. This hybrid MILP-GRU framework offers practical V2G operation and high scalability for large EV fleets in solar-powered smart parking lots.