Sports diplomacy sources of middle powers: the cases of Iran, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye

This article examines and compares sports diplomacy sources of Iran, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye with the aid of Joseph Nye’s soft power framework. These three states are middle powers with different political models in the Middle East. Iran presents itself as a religious democracy, Saudi Arabia promotes moderate Islam, while Türkiye positions itself as a conservative democracy. Experiencing problems to live up to the values they endorse at home, Tehran, Riyadh and Ankara benefit from popular cultural products such as sports to attract the masses. The study is based on three claims. The first claim contends that triumphs in elite sports, especially in the Olympic Games, augment visibility, standing and popularity of a state. Accordingly, the Olympic sports performance of Iran, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye between the years 1992 and 2024 is analysed. The second claim argues that hosting international sports events help states to show their assets and accomplishments to large audience which contributes to enhancement of soft power. In this regard the international events organised by Iran, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye in Summer and Winter Olympic disciplines between the time period of 1992–2025 is scrutinised. Finally, the third claim asserts that all three states have been making use of some niche area in sports diplomacy to expand their soft power. Iran conveys political values through elite athletes. Saudi Arabia hires celebrity football players to draw attention to its local football league. Türkiye taps into sports tourism to promote its natural beauties as well as its physical infrastructure.