Liquid membranes containing a macrocyclic polyether can move or pump a specific cation against its concentration gradient. The cation flux is not proportional to the difference of the cation concentration but to the difference of the product of cation and anion concentrations across the membrane. The results are inconsistent with existing theories of ion transport, but can be explained in terms of ion pairs.
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Caracciolo et al. (1975) studied this question.
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