Approaches and Challenges for Biosensors for Acute and Chronic Heart Failure

Figures

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  Figure 1. Overview of the heart failure (HF) biomarkers.

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  Figure 2. Schematic representation of fabricated tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) sensing biosensor. CV was carried out for 10 cycles within the potential range of −0.4 V to 0.4 V with a scan rate of 0.1 V/s. Reprinted from Ref. [38] with permission from Elsevier.

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  Figure 3. Schematic representation of the electrochemical immunosensor interfaces’ step-by-step assembly process. The methods used to prepare the bioconjugates AuPt-MB-Ab2 and N-GNRs-Fe-MOFs@AuNPs in (A) and (B), respectively. The differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) scan was performed from −0.5 V to −0.1 V with a pulse amplitude of 50 mV, pulse width of 50 ms, and pulse period of 100 ms. Reprinted from Ref. [44] with permission from Elsevier.

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  Figure 4. Diagrammatic representation of the sandwich electrochemical immunosensor preparation process. By square-wave voltammetry, the prepared electrode was scanned 0.0 V−0.6 V in 10 mL PBS (pH 7.4) involving 5 mM H2O2. Reprinted from Ref. [45] with permission from Elsevier.

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  Figure 5. Schematic of the prepared rout of N, Zn-GQDs (A) and the ratiometric biosensor for analysis of cardiac troponin I (B). The electrochemical parameter was −0.6–0.8 mV, the scanning rate was 0.1 V/s, the condition of electrochemiluminescence (ECL) intensity was the scanning range of −2.0−0 V in 0.05 M K2O8S4 solution and the potential increment of 10 mV. Reprinted from Ref. [67] with permission from Elsevier.

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  Figure 6. Schematic representation of the production of an electrochemical C-reactive protein (CRP) immunosensor. Reprinted from Ref. [53] with permission from Elsevier.

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  Figure 7. Schematic representation of fabricated B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP)-sensing biosensor. Reprinted from Ref. [64] with permission from Elsevier.