Flow-induced piezoelectric energy harvesters for self-powered systems: Mechanisms, benchmarking and practical viability

The growing demand for self-powered systems in distributed sensing, Internet-of-Things devices, and structural health monitoring has stimulated increasing interest in flow-induced piezoelectric energy harvesting. By converting flow-driven vibrations into electrical energy, piezoelectric harvesters offer a promising route toward maintenance-light and energy-autonomous operation in environments where battery replacement is inconvenient or impractical. This review examines recent progress in flow-induced piezoelectric harvesters, with particular attention to major excitation modes including vortex-induced vibration, galloping, wake-induced vibration, flutter, and related unsteady-flow responses. The discussion is organized around four closely connected aspects: piezoelectric materials, excitation mechanisms, device configurations, and performance enhancement strategies. Particular emphasis is placed on how material properties, structural layouts, and hybrid or coupled designs influence startup characteristics, bandwidth, output performance, and environmental adaptability. From an application-oriented perspective, the review also discusses the main barriers that still hinder practical deployment, including low-speed operation, durability under long-term cyclic loading, sensitivity to realistic flow conditions, and integration with power management circuits. By linking recent device developments with the requirements of self-powered systems, this review provides a focused reference for the design, evaluation, and application of flow-induced piezoelectric harvesters in practical engineering environments.