From AI-assisted learning to Arabic reading comprehension: the roles of bilingual proficiency and cognitive flexibility among Indonesian university students

Background Artificial intelligence (AI) has been widely applied in language learning, yet how AI reinforces second-language outcomes remains underexplored. Guided by the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML), the study assessed correlations among AI-assisted learning (AIAL), bilingual proficiency (BLPR), cognitive flexibility (CGFX), and Arabic reading comprehension (ARBC) in Indonesian university students. BLPR was defined as respondents' perceptions of their capability to understand, communicate, read, and write in Indonesian and Arabic and switch fluently between them in any communication situation. CGFX was defined as respondents' perceptions of their capability to adjust their thinking, consider alternative solutions, and adjust cognitive strategies in various situations. Methods In this study, 615 university students in Indonesia enrolled in the Arabic Language and Literature and Arabic Language Education courses responded to a cross-sectional questionnaire. The gathered data was analyzing using partial least squares structural equation modeling to assess the hypothesized associations. Results It was discovered that the links between AIAL and BLPR (β = 0.51, p < 0.001) and between BLPR and CGFX (β = 0.58, p < 0.001) met the significance threshold. CGFX was also strongly associated with ARBC (β = 0.63, p < 0.001). However, there were direct non-significant associations between AIAL and CGFX (β = 0.06, p = 0.230) and between BLPR and ARBC (β = 0.08, p = 0.109). Conclusion The lack of significant findings for two of the five hypothesized associations contradicts previously published research. This could be because in this study, the AIAL–CGFX association was assessed from the respondents' perspectives of learning Arabic, whereas in earlier research, the AIAL–CGFX association was assessed from a general learning perspective. Also, in this study, BLPR was defined as learners' perceived ability in different language skills, such as bilingual language skills, including listening, speaking, reading, writing, and language switching, whereas in earlier work, the aim was narrower: the linguistic skills necessary for reading comprehension, such as vocabulary and morphology skills.