Specific Learning Disorders: Neurobiological Foundations, Differential Diagnosis, and Educational Implications

Introduction: Specific learning disorders (SLD) involve persistent difficulties in reading, writing, and/or mathematics, with a neurobiological basis and not attributable to intellectual, sensory deficits, or inadequate instruction. Their prevalence in school populations ranges from 5–15%, with significant impact on academic performance, self-esteem, and social participation. Objective: To synthesize evidence on the neurobiological foundations, differential diagnosis, and educational implications of SLD, guiding clinical and pedagogical practice. Development: Dyslexia shows alterations in left temporo-parietal phonological networks and, in some cases, in the dorsal magnocellular-visual pathway, suggesting a multisystem disorder. Dyscalculia is associated with intraparietal sulcus dysfunction and altered numeric-mnemonic connectivity. Dysgraphia may be linguistic (phonological-orthographic deficit) or motor (dyspraxia/DCD), linked to working memory and executive function impairments. Comorbidities (e.g., ADHD) further complicate cognitive profiles and interventions. Strategies such as the Response to Intervention model support early detection, while Universal Design for Learning and assistive technologies promote educational inclusion. Continuous teacher training and socio-emotional learning programs are essential to mitigate negative effects and foster resilience. Conclusions: SLD require comprehensive diagnosis, evidence-based interventions, and inclusive adaptations. Combining early screening, targeted support, accessible environments, and teacher training enhances academic and psychosocial outcomes. Further research is needed to optimize identification and intervention protocols, particularly regarding dyscalculia and emerging technologies.