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This article presents the theory behind modern evaluative bibliometric techniques at three levels. Policy applications, which characterizes the scientific and technological output of nations or regions; strategic analyses, which deals with articles and patents at the level of a university or company; and tactical analyses, which addresses questions concerning a single subject. The article explains the newer techniques that have been developed at each level, as well as the more important limitations.
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Narin et al. (1994) studied this question.
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