Beyond traditional barriers: A socio-institutional and ethical extension of Innovation Resistance Theory in smart agritourism adoption

Rural regions in developing countries, including Iran, are confronted with multidimensional poverty, economic marginalization, and livelihood instability, which collectively exacerbate food insecurity, outmigration, and natural resource degradation. Smart agritourism has the potential to address these challenges; however, its adoption remains constrained by farmers’ resistance. Although Innovation Resistance Theory (IRT) has been widely applied to explain resistance to innovation, existing studies in agritourism have largely overlooked the integrated roles of social pressure, governance, and ethical considerations, particularly within collectivist rural contexts. This study extends IRT by incorporating social pressure, governance, and ethical dimensions to examine the barriers to farmers' adoption of smart agritourism technologies. Data were collected from 256 farmers in Kermanshah Province using systematic random sampling and analyzed through structural equation modeling (SEM). The extended model explains 67% of the variance in adoption intention (R 2 = 0.67). Results indicate that perceived risk exerts the strongest negative influence on adoption intention, followed by social pressure and ethical concerns. Governance, image, usage, and value barriers are also significant, whereas the tradition barrier is not statistically supported. The findings suggest that farmers’ resistance constitutes a rational response to perceived risks and socio-institutional constraints. Accordingly, a phased intervention strategy is recommended: initially, mitigating financial risks through mechanisms such as insurance and investment guarantees; subsequently, leveraging influential local actors and collective benefits to reshape social norms; and finally, addressing value and usage barriers through accessible, practice-oriented training. Overall, perceived risk and socio-ethical pressures emerge as critical levers for diagnosing and reducing resistance to sustainable technological innovations in rural settings. These insights provide actionable guidance for policymakers seeking to promote the transition toward smart agritourism and inclusive rural development.