Stroke secondary to cancer-associated coagulopathy: a systematic review

BACKGROUND: Stroke is the second most common neurological complication in cancer patients after metastases. Cancer-associated coagulopathy (CAC) is an important mechanism of ischemic stroke in this population. We systematically reviewed the epidemiological, clinical, radiological, and pathophysiological features of CAC-related stroke, as well as associated biomarkers and treatment strategies. METHODS: A systematic search of PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Embase (2000-2025) was performed according to PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Search terms included "stroke", "cancer", "hypercoagulability", "coagulopathy", "disseminated intravascular coagulation", and "non-bacterial or marantic thrombotic endocarditis". Studies published in English or Spanish were included, whereas case reports and review articles were excluded. Data were synthesized qualitatively. RESULTS: Eighty-two studies met inclusion criteria. CAC-related stroke occurs predominantly within six months of cancer diagnosis and is strongly associated with advanced or metastatic disease and a high risk of early recurrence. Adenocarcinoma, particularly lung and pancreatic cancer, is the most frequently associated histological subtype. Proposed mechanisms include mucin-mediated platelet aggregation, tissue factor-driven coagulation, extracellular vesicles, and neutrophil extracellular trap formation, leading to thromboinflammation and platelet-rich thrombi. D-dimer is the biomarker most consistently associated with recurrence and mortality, while C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, CA-125, and transcranial Doppler microembolic signals show limited specificity. Characteristic imaging findings include multiple infarcts involving more than two vascular territories, particularly the 'three territories sign'. Low-molecular-weight heparin and direct oral anticoagulants are the most commonly used secondary prevention strategies. Thirty-day mortality rates range from 25 to 50%. CONCLUSIONS: CAC-related stroke is a distinct and underrecognized entity characterized by specific biological and radiological features and poor outcomes. Earlier recognition and optimized antithrombotic strategies may improve prognosis.