Driving factors of ecosystem services and their trade-offs and synergies in different land use functional zones: A case study of Shanxi Province, China

Ecosystem services (ES) in resource-dependent regions face severe degradation, yet systematic studies on their drivers and trade-off/synergy (TOF) relationships within different land use functional zones (LUFZ) remain scarce. This study selected Shanxi Province, China, to analyze six ES indicators—carbon storage (CS), carbon emissions (CE), water yield (WY), food production (FP), soil conservation (SC), and habitat quality (HQ)—from 2000 to 2020. Integrating multi-model approaches, we identified LUFZ, quantified ES dynamics, revealed driving mechanisms, and analyzed TOF relationships. Key findings show: (1) 117 counties (districts) were classified into economic development zones, coal resource optimization zones, ecological conservation zones, ecological restoration zones, and ecological enhancement zones. (2) "Rising CE and declining CS" were most pronounced in economic development and coal resource optimization zones, while ecological conservation zones maintained stable ES. (3) Driving mechanisms exhibited clear zonal differentiation: forest area dominated CS changes; socioeconomic factors drove CE; precipitation and forest cover influenced WY; landscape patterns governed FP; slope and rainfall shaped SC; land use factors determined HQ. (4) ES relationships evolved from "localized synergies with extensive trade-offs" to "synergy-dominated interactions with contracted trade-offs," marked by alleviated CS-CE conflicts and strengthened synergies. These findings provide a scientific basis for formulating differentiated ecological management policies across various LUFZ in resource-dependent regions. • Five land use functional zones in Shanxi show distinct spatial patterns. • Ecosystem service changes and drivers were analyzed for each functional zone. • Key factors of ecosystem services vary across functional zones. • Ecosystem services increased synergies, decreased trade-offs, shifting to synergy dominance over 20 years.