What Happens When Work Is Not Restricted to a Single Work Location? Development and Validation of the E-Work Well-Being (EWW) Scale

The paradox of the modern workplace lies in the coexistence of location-flexible work and a growing trend of return-to-office mandates introduced by organisations. This paper presents the E-Work Well-being (EWW) scale, a measure assessing the impact of remote (including hybrid) working on well-being. The EWW scale was developed and framed within a multi-dimensional work well-being model, offering a more nuanced and holistic understanding of remote workers’ well-being at work. Three studies were conducted using independent samples (N1 = 202; N2 = 399; N3 = 366) of UK. remote workers. The final scale consists of 69 items assessing 13 first-order well-being factors and three second-order factors. These comprise: individual factors of well-being (i.e., emotions, job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion, and cognitive well-being), interaction between the individual and the organisation (i.e., organisational commitment, relationships with colleagues and supervisors, social isolation, autonomy, competence, and career development), and physical health (i.e., musculoskeletal symptoms and fatigue). The scale demonstrated face, content, convergent, and criterion-related validity and showed internal reliability. This multi-dimensional scale elucidates the complex effects of remote and hybrid work arrangements. It can be employed by line managers, organisations, workplace health practitioners, and researchers to gain comprehensive assessments of remote workers’ well-being at work, identify psychosocial risk factors, and inform targeted workplace interventions.